Food Product Analysis: Dutch Lady Full Cream Milk

Food Product Analysis: Dutch Lady Full Cream Milk Wong Jun Yik Food Product Nutritional Label Topic 1(a): List of Major Minor Food Compound Ingredient list: Milks solids non-fat, Milk Fat, Calcium, Vitamin A, Vitamin B2, Vitamin D3 plant origin stabilizer, Water Major Food component : Milk Solids non-fat (Protein: Casein Whey and Carbohydrates: Lactose) Milk Fat (Lipids), Water Minor Food component : Calcium (Mineral) Vitamin A, B2, D3 (Fat Water soluble vitamin) Food Additive: Plant origin permitted stabilizer Topic 1(b): Role of Food compound in Food The only food additive that are applied in the production of Dutch lady UHT full cream milk is a permitted stabilizer that are originated from plant sources. While the specific name of the stabilizer is not presented in the food label. The stabilizer could be derived from carrageenan that functions as an emulsifier in the milk product. Below describe the general functions of the plant originated stabilizer used in the production of UHT milk. Topic 2(a): Nutritional Health Claim In the content of nutritional and health claim for the Dutch Lady UHT Full cream milk, no nutritional and health claim in identifiable from the packaging of the UHT Milk. Topic 2(b): Enrichment Fortification According to the Dutch Lady Malaysia website, nutrient such as protein, Vitamin B2 and calcium are being enriched into the UHT Full cream milk during the milk production. The purpose for enrichment of the milk is to increase the nutritional value that aids in reproduction of body tissue that is essential to the growth and development. Besides, enrichment of calcium and vitamin B2 in milk would help to improve the bones development as well as to increase the facilitation of energy release. By definition, enrichment is process where food manufacturer replenish the nutrient that were lost during the processing. For the Dutch lady UHT milk, the factor that contributes to the enrichment of nutrient is highly influence by two unit of operation in the milk production: (1) Ultra high temperature preservation technique that destroy heat sensitive nutrient such as vitamin B2 and protein and (2) Recombination/ Reconstitution process that utilize milk solid and milk powder as main ingredient. Re combined milk is a type of milk emulsion produce through the combination of milk powder, milk solids, milk fat water (Walstra, Wouters and Geurts, 2006). Because the milk solid and milk powder is extracted from the raw milk by the milk product manufacturer, nutrient that are water soluble such as vitamin B and mineral are being separated from the milk solid leading to the needs of enrichment during the production of recombined milk. Besides, the enrichment of nutrient in milk is also needed to achieve the requirement set by the Food regulatory body such as Ministry of health and FDA. Topic 3(a): Factors influencing the deterioration of food Dutch Lady UHT full cream milk is a product which undergoes Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) preservation technique that are being package into an aseptic packaging that are made out of paperboard, polyethylene and aluminum foil that have the properties against pH, oxygen, light and microbial deterioration. With such, the factor that influences the deterioration of UHT Milk is mainly contributed by the physical stress toward the packaging that would cause a breakage in the packaging. In addition, the breakages caused by physical stress would increases the opportunity toward additional biological and physical deterioration factor such as changes in color and flavor causes by the exposure to light, oxidative rancidity through exposure to oxygen and contamination by food-poisoning microorganisms. Moreover, the utilization and the opening of UHT milk packaging by end-user also encourage the deterioration of the milk. Lastly, contaminated packaging and machinery in the product line could cont ribute to the food deterioration. Below describe the factor influencing the deterioration of Dutch lady UHT milk in the packaging as well post-usage deterioration. Physical factor Physical Stress: Unprofessional handling and improper storage condition are the major contribution to the deterioration of the aseptic packaging of the milk carton. With opening of the milk carton that is causes by the mechanical stress, it expose the milk toward deterioration such as oxidation and light inducted color changes that are cause the food undesirable to consume. Besides, the opening of the milk carton causes the infestation and attraction of rodent that is naturally vector that carries harmful microorganism. Oxygen: With the opening of the aseptic packaging causes by physical stress and the usage of UHT milk by end-user. Both expose the UHT milk toward oxygen which encourages the oxidative rancidity of milk lipids that leads to the formation of undesirable aroma. In addition, the expose of oxygen also provide a suitable condition for the microbial growth Light: The exposure of UHT milk toward sunlight can cause the milk to lose its nutritional properties through the disruption of vitamin B2. Moreover, milk that are exposes to sunlight also cause the milk to develop undesirable burned flavor that are due to the light inductive oxidation of fats and causes the changes in the structure of whey protein. Biological factor Growth and Activities of Microorganism: With opening of the packaging cause by physical stress and by consumer, this increase the opportunity of contamination by microorganism that is capable to cause degradation of protein, carbohydrates and fats that deteriorate the quality of the milk. Besides, foul aromas that are being developed by these spoilage microorganisms are deteriorate the quality of the milk. Moreover, other than deterioration that are causes during storage and by consumer, deterioration of UHT milk product also can be contributed by machinery used in the production line of the UHT milk such as the seal in the homogenizer as well as the air supplied to the aseptic packing unit (Tamime, 2009). In addition, the faulty seams and pinholes in the aseptic packaging box carton are major source of spoilage bacteria in the UHT milk that contribute the deterioration of the food product (Varnam Sutherland, 2001). Topic 3 (b): Principle of food preservation method used Based on the information given in the Dutch lady Malaysia website and the packaging, the principle of food preservation method being applied into the UHT full cream milk is Aseptic processing with the purpose to achieve commercial sterility. Aseptic processing is physical preservation methods that involve the utilization of heat to achieve sterility. The purpose of utilizing heat preservation method in the production of UHT Milk is to increase the keeping quality and the shelf life of the milk product. In addition, the utilization of heat treatment helps to reduce both the spoilage and pathogenic microbial population and their spore such as mycobacterium tuberculosis, salmonella species, staphylococcus aureus, etc. Besides, heat preservation treatment help to inhibit enzymatic activity that is derived natively from milk as well as to limit the autoxidation that causes the chemical deterioration of milk lipids (Walstra, Wouters and Geurts, 2006). Commercial sterility in the context of food manufacturing is define as the degree of sterilization that destroy all pathogenic and toxin forming microorganism that are capable to causes spoilage in food under normal handling and storage condition(Vaclavik and Christian, 2008). In the production of Dutch lady UHT Full cream milk, commercial sterility is achieve through aseptic processing which involve the usage of thermal processing in the form of Ultra high temperature(UHT) preservation technique followed by aseptic packaging technique. The combination of UHT treatment coupled with aseptic packaging made a fundamental improvement in term of the bacteriological safety. Moreover, Aseptic processing improve the shelf life of the dairy product from typical 1-2 weeks of the refrigerated pasteurized product to longer shelf life ranging from 6-9 months without the need of refrigeration as well as the addition of food additive to increase its shelf life. Besides, the shelf life stability of the UHT Milk product that are contributed by the aseptic packaging benefits countries where environmental temperature is high as well as the limitation of refrigeration. (Tewari and Juneja, 2007) Topic 4: Unit of Operation in food production The units of operation involved in the production of Dutch Lady UHT Full cream milk are: (1) Recombination process, (2) Ultra High Temperature process, (3) Homogenization process and (4) Aseptic packaging Recombination process: A recombined milk product is produce through a combination of milk fat and milk solids-nonfat with or without water to re-establish the consistency of natural milk. The recombination process of the milk start with the dispersion of skim milk powder in the water with a temperature ranging between 40 to 50 C. The milk powder is being fed into the water through the usage of hopper with care taken to avoid any in-cooperation of air. There are various method used to in cooperated the powder into the water, where pre emptying the milk powder in a dry room with dust removal system is commonly applied in the recombination process. After the in-cooperation of milk powder with water, the reconstituted milk is left for minimum 15 to 20 minutes of hydration with the purpose of minimizing the powdery and chalky mouth feel. In some milk product manufacturer, the reconstituted milk is held overnight at 4 C prior to further processing to ensure complete hydration. Upon the co mpletion of hydration process, the reconstituted milk is transfer for filtration to separate out any undissolved milk powder particle. The reconstituted milk is then left for vacuum de-aeration for 20 minutes to remove occluded air that are commonly found in the milk powder with the purpose to prevent the fouling of heat exchanger and excessive oxidation. Lastly, the reconstituted milk is heated to 60 to 65 C with the in-cooperation of liquid milk fat or anhydrous milk fat making a course emulsion through virtuous stirring in a static mixer (USDEC, 2005). Ultra High Temperature: The combination of UHT processing together with aseptic packaging in milk was introduced to achieve a shelf stable product, at the same time minimizing chemical change as compared to the in-container sterilized milk. There are two type of heating method involved in the UHT process: direct indirect heating. In direct heating, UHT process is achieve by mixing superheated steam with milk. While in-direct heating achieve UHT through transferring heat from plate heat exchanger(PHE) across a partition between the milk and the heating medium either through steam or hot water (Mehta, 1980; Burton,1988). The Ultra high temperature processing involve heating the milk in a continuous process system to a relatively high temperature ranging around 135 degree Celsius with a minimum two second of holding time followed by a rapid cooling. Since the sterilization and cooling process of the flowing liquid-milk in the UHT process is relatively close, the longtime heat penetrati on problem derived from the in-container sterilization is avoided. Through the rapid heat transfer technique utilize in the UHT process, undesirable changes in taste and nutritional quality of the milk is minimized. (Tewari and Juneja, 2007) Aseptic Packaging: Aseptic packaging is a form of preservation technique involved the filling of sterile milk product into the sterile container (aseptic tank) in a sterile environment. It is then subsequently sealed through a continuous process that provides a high operational flexibility as well as high stability against microbial contamination (Tewari and Juneja, 2007). Moreover, the application of aseptic packaging allowed the milk to be package into a relatively versatile container that does not require any form of refrigeration condition that can be easily distributed in part of the world where refrigeration is uncommon. The most common aseptic packages used in the UHT milk are the tetrahedral-shaped paperboard cartons exemplified by Tetra Pak that is made out from the laminated roll stock consist a combination of polyethylene, paper, polyethylene, aluminum foil, polyethylene, and a coating of ionomer resin (Potter and Hotchkiss, 1998). Homogenization: Homogenization process is a universal set of industrial practice, purpose to stabilize the fat and water emulsions against separation that are causes by the gravitational pull (Bylund, 1995). In composition of the milk and cream, milk lipids are made out of fat globule that varies from 0.1 to 20  µm in diameter that have the tendency to gather into clumps which rises due to their relatively lighter density as compared to skim milk. This separation between the milk lipids and milk causes highly visible separated layers that are undesirable and unappealing to consumer. To eliminate the separation of milk, homogenization process is applied in the production of milk to cause the disruption of fat globules in order reduce its size to a smaller one, where the new interface is covered with milk protein predominantly micellar casein. Consequently, help to minimize the creaming properties of the milk as well as the tendency for fat globules to coalesce. Moreover, the purpose of integrating homogenization process in the production of UHT milk is further supported work from Walstra, Wouters and Geurts , where the process help to counteracting the creaming of milk lipids, to improve the stability towards partial coalescence as well as to create a desirable rheological properties of the milk (Walstra, Wouters and Geurts, 2006). References Bylund, G. (1995). Dairy processing handbook. 1st ed. [Lund, Sweden: Tetra Pak Processing Systems AB. Dutchlady.com.my (2014). Dutch Lady: Nutrition: Retain Fresh Milk. [online] Available at:http://www.dutchlady.com.my/en/home.asp?page=nutritionsubpage=retain_fresh_milk [Accessed 29 Jun. 2014]. Furia, T. (1972). CRC handbook of food additives. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Harris, P. (1990). Food gels. 1st ed. London: Elsevier Applied Science. Milkunleashed.com, (2014). Aseptic Milk Packaging UHT Milk vs Pasteurization Tetra Pak. [online] Available at: http://www.milkunleashed.com/shelf-safe-milk/aseptic-packaging-uht-milk.html [Accessed 29 Jun. 2014]. Pereira, G. (2014). What nutrients get lost when processing milk? (EUFIC). [online] Eufic.org. Available at: http://www.eufic.org/page/en/page/FAQ/faqid/nutrients-lost-processing-milk/ [Accessed 29 Jun. 2014]. Potter, N. and Hotchkiss, J. (1998). Food science. 1st ed. Gaithersburg, Md.: Aspen Publishers. Practical applications of gums and stabilisers in dairy Foods. (2014). 1st ed. [ebook] Massey university, p.10. Available at: http://www.dairyaustralia.com.au/~/media/B60880F0474D4FB6967D2CFA71A5D193.pdf [Accessed 29 Jun. 2014]. Premiumingredients.es, (2014). Dairy drinks Premium Ingredients. [online] Available at: http://www.premiumingredients.es/applications/dairy/dairy-drinks/ [Accessed 29 Jun. 2014]. Shereen Lehman, M. (2014). What Are Enriched and Fortified Foods?. [online] About.com Nutrition. Available at: http://nutrition.about.com/od/askyournutritionist/f/enriched.htm [Accessed 29 Jun. 2014]. Tamime, A. (2009). Milk processing and quality management. 1st ed. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell Pub./Society of Dairy Technology. Tasneem, M., Siddique, F., Ahmad, A. and Farooq, U. (2014). Stabilizers: Indispensable Substances in Dairy Products of High Rheology. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, [online] 54(7), pp.869-879. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.614702 [Accessed 28 Jun. 2014]. Tetrapak.com, (2014). Dairy and milk homogenization. [online] Available at: http://www.tetrapak.com/products-and-services/processing-equipment/dairy-equipment/homogenization [Accessed 29 Jun. 2014]. Tewari, G. and Juneja, V. (2007). Advances in Thermal and Non-Thermal Food Preservation. 1st ed. Hoboken: John Wiley Sons. USDEC, (2005). Reference Manual for US Milk Powders: 2005 Revised Edition. 1st ed. [ebook] United States Dairy Export Council. Available at: http://usdec.files.cms-plus.com/PDFs/2008ReferenceManuals/Milk_Powder_Reference_Manual_Complete2_Optzed.pdf [Accessed 29 Jun. 2014]. Walstra, P., Wouters, J. and Geurts, T. (2006). Dairy science and technology. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC/Taylor Francis. Fiszman, S. M., Lluch, M. A. and Salvador, A. (1999). Effect of addition of gelation on microstructure of acidic milk gels and yoghurt and on their rheological properties. Int. Dairy J. 9:895–901. Varnam, A.H. Sutherland, J.P. (2001) Milk and Milk Products – Technology, Chemistry and Microbiology, Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD. Ebola: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Ebola: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Table of Contents 1.1 Introduction on Ebola virus. 1.2 History of Ebola. 1.3 Characteristics of Ebola virus. 1.4 Symptoms of Ebola. 1.5 Diagnosing Ebola. 1.6 Treatment methods for Ebola. 1.7 Conclusion. 1.1 Introduction on Ebola virus. Ebola is an emerging virus even though it is not new-as it has been emerged before and can be classified as one of the most ancient viruses found and it is once again appearing (Draper, 2002). Ebola was first identified in the Democratic republic of Congo or which was previously known as Zaire, since it appeared in the town of Yambuku-central Africa in the year 1976 (Draper, 2002).The largest and the most complex Ebola outbreak since the first outbreak was in 1976, which was experienced by the people of west Africa in march 2014 (World Health Organization, 2014). This particular outbreak has gone through many cases which have lead to death more than all the previous outbreaks combined (WHO, 2014). Ebola can be classified according to its genetic antigenic characterization (Porrut, 2005). 1.2 History of Ebola. Ebola virus was first discovered and experienced in the form of two simultaneous outbreaks, first due to the E.Sudan and the other due to E.Zaire, both these outbreaks happened in places close by, in Sudan near the border with the Democratic republic of Congo (Smith, 2005).This virus further affected the towns of Nzara and Maridi between June and November 1976 which gave mortality rate as 53%: 150 of 284 victims which is the characteristic of the Sudan subtype (Smith, 2005). The second outbreak was due to the E.Zaire which occurred in the border of the democratic republic of Congo which is close to Sudan and the Central African Republic between August and November in the same year 1976 (Johnson, 2005). The virus is named after the Ebola River where the virus was first discovered in 1976 (CNN, 2014). The third outbreak occurred between July and October 1979 in the same place attacked by the Sudan virus, but didn’t cause great extensive outbreaks like the first two, this virus affected 34 people and killing 22- mortality 65% (Porrut, 2005). 1.3 Characteristics of Ebola virus. Among the Filoviridae virus, the two commonly found deadly viruses are the Ebola and the Marburg viruses- This viral family contains viruses with non segmented negative-sense RNA genomes (Geisbert and Jahrling, 2005,). Ebola virus is not harmful unless it fuses its glycoprotein viral with the host cell membrane (Wood-Lewis et al., 2005). There are mainly five types of Ebola viruses identified, which are: Ebola Zaire, Ebola Ivory Coast, Ebola Sudan, Ebola Bundibugyo, Ebola Reston and the one which is producing the outbreaks in 2014 was due to the Zaire species (WHO, 2014) Filovirus cell entry is supported by its class I fusion protein or the spike protein GP1, 2 (Volchkov, et al., 2011). There are seven genes in the order 3’ leader, nucleoprotein, virion-protein 35, VP40, glycoprotein, VP30, VP24, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L)-5’ trailer found in the genome (Sanchez et al., 2011). Ebola virus is transmitted to a human via having direct contact with another Ebola victim-here the direct contact includes: blood, secretions, organs or other body fluids of the victim and also the surfaces and materials which are contaminated with these fluids (WHO, 2011). Usually the victims of Ebola are infectious as long as their blood and body fluid-which includes semen and breast milk is contaminated with the virus (WHO, 2011). Ebola releases number of countless chemicals like cytokines, chemokines and histamines when it infects different types of cells (Smith, 2009).this causes the number of symptoms we can observe to conclude whether the person is a victim of Ebola or not( Smith, 2009).this virus’s genome is particularly small and appears as a long worm l where it resembles a length of thread but it can also be in a U-shaped or in a shape of â€Å"6† or even at times circular.( Smith, 2009). 1.4 Symptoms of Ebola. Ebola viruses are pathogenic for humans, as they cause specific febrile hemorrhagic disease and these symptoms will be directly shown after nearly a week (Baron, 2005) usually the symptom of Ebola includes fever, headache, and abdominal pain. Nausea, fatigue and mostly an ill feeling, but this is what makes diagnosing Ebola difficult, as these symptoms are common for many diseases (Smith, 2009). But to elaborate more, first symptoms of Ebola are sudden fever, muscle pain followed by headache and sore throat along with this the rest of the symptoms are shown which are: vomiting, diarrhea, rash and even at times internal and external bleeding is shown (WHO, 2014). 1.5 Diagnosing Ebola. It is usually difficult to categorize the Ebola virus and Marburg virus as they both have got similar clinical symptoms; here the most common symptoms are severe, febrile and acute fever (Feldman et al, 2005). Recently there have been many outbreaks on Ebola in several countries of central Africa and due to these outbreaks there have been different types of field diagnostics as medical sophisticated support was required. (Feldman et al., 2003,). For an instance, the two outbreaks of Ebola hemorrhagic fever which took place in Gabon, 1996 resulted in mortality of 66% and 75% respectively in laboratory confirmed patients. (Courbet et al., 1999). Several diagnostic assays for Ebola infection are currently used and have been recently evaluated in patients in the field. (Ksiazek et al., 1999). The different species of Ebola virus seem to cause somewhat different clinical syndromes, but it’s slightly difficult to observe them under perfect conditions, and it’s very rare that observations like this are done. (Feldman, Geisbert and kawaoka, 2007, p.129) Using the symptoms Ebola can be identified, but before doing so it is investigated using so many procedures like: Antigen-capture detection tests, Serum neutralization tests, Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay, Electron microscopy, Virus isolation by cell culture and Antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Handling these can be highly dangerous and can be risky as these can be transmitted through direct contact (WHO, 2014). 1.6 Treatment methods for Ebola. Due to its specific morphology, still the drugs and the therapies are not fully evaluated, however it is currently evaluating (WHO, 2014).At the same time Ebola can be prevented to its maximum if we follow necessary preventive techniques like raising the awareness of Ebola infection, safe burials and social mobilization (WHO, 2014).Different species of Ebola virus causes different symptoms but the opportunities for a good observation of the virus under good condition is very rare (Feldman et al., 2011). The virulence of Ebola virus differs according to the species or strain which attacked the humans as well as non-human primates (Sanchez et al., 2011).among the Ebola’s genus infection rate of the Zaire Ebola virus and the Sudan Ebola virus rate differs, among these the Zaire Ebola virus has the highest case-fatality rates which is 60-90% (Guenno et al., 2011).lately due to some investigations done which included the observation of some attenuated vesicular stomatitis virus expressing the Ebola virus surface glycoprotein which previously has demonstrated efficiency as a vaccine against Ebola infections in rodents and monkeys (Feldman et al., 2007). It should be highly realized that workers such as doctors, nurses, scientists’ who work with direct contact with the victim too should be under consecutive care as Ebola is a directly spreading virus (Casillas, 2003). 1.7 Conclusion. Moreover to summarize all what is said above we can say that Ebola is not a virus to be put down as it is highly dangerous and very harmful as it can easily spread which causes it to be deadly and also as it can keep rising leading to tragedy deaths. And to recall the past, it is said that Ebola was found in Africa and the name itself implies on the first outbreak which happened near the Ebola River and also there are five main types of Ebola viruses but among them the E.Zaire and the E.Sudan are the commonly found ones. Ebola is a class 4 pathogen belonging to the family Filoviridae as it causes severe hemorrhagic fever and various symptoms and this is currently incurable as there are no specific treatments or drugs available. Isolating the infected person, handling the preventive techniques carefully might reduce the spreading of Ebola, and finally to conclude it is in the future’s hand to find proper vaccine and drugs to stop Ebola. Reference list Baron, C. R., Smith, D.I.H. and McCormick, B.J. (2005) ‘The natural history of Ebola’, microbes and infection, 7, pp.1005-1006, [Online] DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.04.006 .(Accessed: 18 October 2014) Cable news network, S(2014), Ebola fast facts. Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2014/04/11/health/ebola-fast-facts/ (Accessed:3 November 2014) Casillas, A. M., Nyamathi, A. M., Sosa, A., Wilder, C, L. and Sands, H (2003) ‘A current review of virus: Pathogenesis, clinical presentation and diagnostic assessment’, Sage journals, 4, pp. 268-275 [Online] DOI: 10.1177/1099800403252603 (Accessed: 04 November 2014) Draper, A.S. (2002) Ebola. Google Books [Online] Available at: http://books.google.lk/books?id=FohdK6o-8WICprintsec=frontcoverdq=ebolahl=ensa=Xei=3ypWVNaYB8m3uQTq9IDgAQredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=ebolaf=false. (Accessed: 30 October 2014). Draper, A.S. (2002) Ebola. Google Books [Online] Available at: http://books.google.lk/books?id=FohdK6o-8WICprintsec=frontcoverdq=ebolahl=ensa=Xei=3ypWVNaYB8m3uQTq9IDgAQredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=ebolaf=false. (Accessed: 30 October 2014). Feldman, H., Geisbert, T. and Kawaoka, Y. (2007) ‘filo virus: recent advances and future challenges’ The Lancet, [online] available at:http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673610606678. (Accessed: 18 October, 2014) Feldman, H., Geisbert, T.W., Kawaoka., Peters, C.J., Leduc, L.W., Pattyn, S.R. and Sanchez, A. (2011) ‘Ebola hemorrhagic fever’, The Lancet, 377, pp.849-862, [Online] DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60667-8 (Accessed: 18 October 2014) Feldman, H., S.M. Jones., K.M. Daddario-Dicapario., J.B. Geisbert and U. Stroher (2007) ‘Effective post-exposure treatment of Ebola infection’, PLOS, January [Online] Available at: http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.0030002#close (Accessed: 1 November 2014) Geisbert, T. W. and Jahrling, P. B. (2005) ‘Endosomal proteolysis of the Ebola virus glycoprotein is necessary for infection’, Science, 308, pp. 1643-1645, [Online] DOI: 10.1126/science.1110656. (Accessed 31 October 2014) Guenno, B. Le. Formenty, P. and Wyers, M. (2011) ‘Ebola hemorrhagic fever’, The Lancet, 377, pp.849-862, [Online] DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60667-8 (Accessed: 18 October 2014) Feldman, H., Geisbert, T. W., Jahrlring, P. B., and Netesov, H. D. (2005) ‘laboratory diagnosis of Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever’, Virology, 3, pp. 205-209 [online] Available at:http://www.pathexo.fr/documents/articles-bull/T98-3-2761-4-5p.pdf.(Accessed: 18 October 2014) Feldman, H., Jones, S., Klenk, H. D. and Schnitzler, H. J (2003) ‘Ebola virus: from discovery to vaccine’ Nat rev immunol, 3, pp. 677-685 [online] available at: http://www.pathexo.fr/documents/articles-bull/T98-3-2761-4-5p.pdf. (Accessed: 18 October 2014) Leroy, E. M., Baize, S., Lu, C, Y., McCormick, B, J., Georges, A, J., Courbet, G, M-C., et al, (2000) ‘Diagnosis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever by RT-PCR in an epidemic setting’, journal of medical virology, 60, pp.463-467 [online] available at:http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(200004)60:43.0.CO;2-M?r3_referer=wolshow_checkout=1#14137278393851type=checkout%3Aready (Accessed: 18 October 2014) Porrut, X., Kumulungai, B., Wittman, T. and Moussavou (2005) ‘The natural history of Ebola’, Microbes and infection, 7(7-8), pp.1005-1014 [Online] DOI:10.1016/j.micinf.2005.04.006 (Accessed: 03 November 2014) Sanchez, A., Geisbert, T. W., Feldman, H. and P. B. Jahrling (2011) ‘Ebola hemorrhagic fever’ Lancet, 377, pp.849-862, [Online] DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60667-8 (Accessed on 31 October 2014) Smith, T. C. (2009) Ebola. Google Books. [Online] Available at: http://books.google.lk/books?id=u22zQ669ZfoCpg=PA35dq=ebola+characteristicshl=ensa=Xei=_AZZVLWeDsLt8gXmoYGYDgredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=ebola%20characteristicsf=false (Accessed: 31 October 2014) Volchkov, V. E., Volchkova, V. A., Dolnik, O., Feldman, H., Klenk., Lee, J., Mangasarian and Tronto, D. (2011) ‘Ebola virus peptide immunoadhesins inhibit Marburg virus and Ebola virus cell entry’ Journal of virology, 22, pp.8502-8513, [Online] DOI: 10.1128/JVI.02600-10. (Accessed: 31 October 2014). Wood-Lewis, R. J., Bates, P. and Takada, A. (2005) ‘Endosomal proteolysis of the Ebola virus glycoprotein is necessary for infection’, Science, 308, pp. 1643-1645, [Online] DOI: 10.1126/science.1110656. (Accessed: 31 October 2014). World health organization (2014) Ebola virus disease. Available at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/. (Accessed: 30 October 2014). 1